The accounts posting pro-Milanović content were diverse, posting in English, French, Spanish, Italian, Serbian and Croatian. They appeared to mobilise in two waves: following Milanović’s first-place finish in the first round of voting and after his statements opposing potential Croatian involvement in the Ukraine War.

Researchers also analysed news media relating to the presidential runoff and found that several Kremlin propaganda outlets and Kremlin-aligned media outlets in other countries took a favourable stance toward Milanović .

The English website of Al Mayadeen, widely recognised as a Hezbollah-affiliated platform, published two articles falsely asserting that Milanović had won the first round of elections which were further amplified by bot accounts.

Croatian and regional fringe outlets previously flagged for peddling disinformation about the war in Ukraine have also promoted Milanović, including Epoha, Projekt Velebit, and Maxportal.hr, researchers found.